Replication, Partitioning and Distributed Transactions

One database, many machines

Replication keeps copies of data on several nodes for availability and read scaling. In primary-replica (leader-follower) setups, writes go to the primary and stream to replicas; synchronous replication waits for replicas before committing (no data loss on failover, higher latency), while asynchronous replication does not (faster, but recent commits can be lost on failover and replicas can serve stale reads). Partitioning (sharding) splits data across nodes by range or hash of a shard key, so each node handles part of the data and writes; good shard keys spread load evenly and keep related data together. When one transaction touches data on several nodes, a distributed commit protocol is needed. Two-phase commit (2PC): a coordinator asks all participants to prepare (vote yes after making their changes durable but not final), and if all vote yes it tells them to commit, otherwise to abort. 2PC guarantees atomicity but can block if the coordinator fails at the wrong moment, which is why many systems use consensus protocols such as Paxos or Raft, or avoid distributed transactions with designs such as sagas.

Two-phase commit, step by step

A transfer between accounts stored on two different nodes.

coordinator C, participants N1 (account A), N2 (account B)

phase 1 - prepare
  C -> N1, N2 : PREPARE
  N1 : debit A in a durable, uncommitted state -> votes YES
  N2 : credit B in a durable, uncommitted state -> votes YES

phase 2 - commit
  C : writes COMMIT to its log
  C -> N1, N2 : COMMIT     -> both make the change final and release locks

if any participant votes NO (or times out) -> C sends ABORT to all
blocking case: participants voted YES and C crashes before phase 2 ->
  they must wait, holding locks, until C recovers

A wedding ceremony

The officiant (coordinator) asks each partner "do you?" (prepare). Only if both say yes does the officiant declare them married (commit). If the officiant faints after both said yes, everyone waits in uncertainty until they recover.

त्वरित जाँच: What is a known weakness of two-phase commit?

• It cannot guarantee atomicity
• Participants can block, holding locks, if the coordinator fails after they voted yes
• It only works on one machine
• It requires NoSQL databases